Published on 1 November 2024; updated on 29 April 2025 (footnotes and further reading section added)
Being vegan means embracing both animal welfare and environmental responsibility. Therefore, in the Material on Trial series, we explore the pros and cons of popular materials in the vegan fashion industry, giving each argument a fair hearing. Our goal is to better understand these materials, striving to minimise harm with every fashion choice we make, while celebrating solutions and innovations that bring us closer to a more sustainable future.
In this article, we focus on cotton, addressing both conventional and organic cotton. We provide some insights about what’s in between as well.
And so it begins…
Cotton is the world’s most widely used natural fiber. According to Textile Exchange, 24.7 million tonnes of cotton was produced in 2023, accounting for 20% global fiber market1. It is also one of the oldest, alongside linen and hemp. Historians estimate that the use of cotton dates back at least 7,000 years in Mexico, 5,000 years in the Indus River Valley, and 4,500 years in Egypt. The invention of the mechanical spinning machine in 1730 by the English revolutionised the production of cotton fabric, and made it a defining material of modern shifts, skirts, dresses, bodices, shirtwaists, shirts, and ultimately, jeans and t-shirts.
Cotton fiber is basically cellulose, the most abundant organic polymer on Earth, found in the cell walls of most plants and trees. The fiber is extracted and spun into yarns, which are then woven or knitted into fabric. In farming, upland cotton, originally a South American species, dominates over other cotton species, and accounts for approximately 90% of global production. Egyptian cotton, known for its silky texture and durability, is harder to cultivate in large quantities. Indian and Levant cotton contribute to 2% of global production. Supima cotton, considered the world’s most durable cotton, is grown in the US and accounts for 1% of global production. China and India are constantly competing over the top spots as the world’s leading cotton producers, with rankings often varying depending on the source and the specific research period. For example, according to Adda247, in 2024, India emerged as the leading global producer of cotton, capturing 25% of the market share with a production volume of 5.9 million tonnes2. China followed closely with 5.739 million tonnes, while the United States and Brazil produced 3.963 million tonnes and 2.678 million tonnes, respectively. However, the USDA’s report for the 2023/2024 marketing year presents a different ranking with China leading with 27.35 million 480lb bales, followed by India with 25.8 million 480lb bales. Brazil and the United States are reported to have produced 14.57 million and 12.07 million 480lb bales, respectively3.
What makes cotton a champ?
For consumers, cotton offers two highly sought-after qualities in one single fabric. Cotton’s breathability, moisture-absorbing, and body temperature-regulating properties make it one of the most comfortable fabrics to wear, while its high durability requires no special maintenance, and withstands repeated use and machine washing without compromising fabric performance. Additionally, organic cotton is hypoallergenic, provides moderate UV protection, and possesses antibacterial properties, making it suitable for both everyday and medical use.
For a fashion brand, few fabrics offer a versatility that cotton does. Cotton can be woven into a wide array of fabrics, from lightweight cambric, gauze, muslin, and lawn, to sturdier ones such as canvas and denim, fuzzy and warm velour and flannel, textured ones like corduroy, Oxford, and terry cloth, and even sheen fabrics such as poplin and sateen. Cotton is frequently blended with other fiber to enhance fabric properties: polyester for durability, spandex for stretch and flexibility, rayon for softness, linen for breathability, wool for warmth and softness, and nylon for strength and elasticity. It is a highly absorbent fiber that takes up dye easily and evenly without losing its quality to the dye. Cotton reacts well with both natural and synthetic dyes, and can be dyed with various techniques, from large-scale industrial processes to artisanal methods like tie-dyeing, dip-dyeing, and batik.
As the demand for natural fabrics grows, cotton remains a more affordable option compared to other natural fiber such as linen, wool, and silk. For a vegan brand, there is virtually no cheaper natural fiber alternative to cotton. Despite the high initial costs of land, equipment, irrigation, and labor, cotton’s high yield and efficient mechanised manufacturing contribute to lower costs and strong profitability in the long run. Additionally, cotton farming produces valuable by-products such as cottonseed oil and animal feed, which add to its economic importance.
So…what’s the problem?
Cotton is extremely labour- and resource-intensive. The profitability of cotton farming depends on various factors like market prices, yield, farming efficiency, and ultimately labor cost. Despite mechanisation, many regions still rely on manual labor for planting, harvesting, and picking cotton bolls. And where there is extensive manual labor, there is potential for exploitation and unfair working conditions, such as child slavery and forced labour. According to the Environmental Justice Foundation, child labor is prevalent in six of the top seven cotton-producing countries. In India, up to half a million children work in hazardous conditions, and in Uzbekistan, it is reported that the government is compelling students, teachers, and other public sector workers to pick cotton.
Conventional cotton is an extremely thirsty crop, and requires a lot of water, fertilisers, and 25% of the world’s pesticides to grow4. 2700 litres of water, 0.3 kg of synthetic fertilisers, and 0.01 kg of pesticides is required to produce a single conventional cotton t-shirt5. Synthetic fertilisers lead to nutrient imbalances in the soil and, over time, reduce soil fertility. Chemical pesticides and herbicides harm beneficial soil microorganisms and reduce soil biodiversity. Frequent tilling leads to soil erosion, which removes the topsoil and the organic matter and nutrients within it. Inefficient irrigation can lead to water logging or salinisation, both of which degrade soil quality. Heavy machinery compacts soil, reducing its ability to absorb water and nutrients. A five-year cotton cultivation period requires three to five years of crop rotation, reduced tillage, and integrated pest management to restore basic soil health. For significant improvement, another five to ten years of continuous organic practices and biodiversity enhancement are required, along with ongoing monitoring and practice adjustments6.
That’s not all. Turning cotton bolls into cloth involves chemical processes for treating, dyeing, printing, and finishing, which consume large amounts of water and use hazardous chemicals. Entire communities, such as those in Tiruppur (India), Xintang (China), and along the Citarum River (Indonesia) have been impacted by the adverse effects of cotton processing7. Apart from high water consumption, the dyeing process often uses large amounts of water mixed with synthetic dyes and chemicals such as chromium, lead, and formaldehyde. These substances are not biodegradable, they leach into the soil and end up in wastewater, rivers and streams. The dyeing process also releases volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants into the air, which cause respiratory problems, skin irritation, waterborne diseases (such as gastrointestinal issues and liver damage), and ultimately cancer and neurological effects, from headaches to cognitive impairment.
On second, or actually third thought
Conventional cotton farming and the use of hazardous chemicals exploit both the environment and humans alike. Fortunately, systematic sustainability concerns have led to the development of organic and in-conversion cotton, which addresses many conventional cotton issues and reduces environmental footprints by improving soil health, conserving water, and promoting biodiversity. Organic cotton is grown with natural methods from non-GMO seeds. Therefore, producing a single organic cotton t-shirt requires 1100-2000 litres of water8, which is significantly less than conventional cotton due to better soil health and thus water retention, and no single input of synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, as organic farming avoids harmful chemicals, which ultimately results in longer-lasting fertile land. The term “organic cotton” can only be used in clothing that has 90% or more organic cotton in the fabric composition. “Bio Cotton” is a term used for certified organic cotton that has been made with an addition of synthetic fiber, and while it’s more durable, the input of synthetic means it takes longer to biodegrade.
Transitional cotton, aka in-conversion cotton, is produced during the period when a farm is transitioning from conventional to organic farming practices, which usually takes around three years9. Farmers would stop using synthetic pesticides and fertilisers, and replace them with natural, organic ones. Pest, disease and weed control is mechanic. Crop rotation, cover cropping and reducing tillage is required to increase soil organic matter, enhance microbial activity, and improve soil structure. The cotton plants gradually adapt to the organic environment and develop stronger root systems and become more resilient to pests and diseases. And while transitional cotton isn’t ideal, it is important to support the farmers in their processes as they get rid of old methods and strive to apply the new ones while being constantly monitored and inspected for compliance and progress. Farmers must keep detailed records of their practices, inputs, and crop management to demonstrate adherence to organic standards. Regular soil testing is conducted to monitor the levels of synthetic residues and to ensure that the soil is free from prohibited substances.
While organic and transitional cotton refer specifically to the farming methods, certified cotton means that the cotton has been verified to meet certain standards and criteria. Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), OEKO-TEX® ORGANIC COTTON, and Better Cotton are currently the most trusted cotton certificates as they verify not just the final product, but the entire supply chain and chain of custody. On a note of innovation, hydroponic cotton is also being developed to address both water and land exploitation issue, while holding great promise in meeting the insatiable demand for the fiber.
Last, but definitely not least
Cotton, both pre- and post-consumer, is highly recyclable, through well-established mechanical (shredding) and chemical (cellulose breakdown) methods. Recycled cotton is used in various products and can be blended with other fiber to improve quality. Recycling cotton reduces the demand for virgin cotton, therefore saving water, energy, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, while diverting textile waste from landfills. Also, as natural fiber, cotton is biodegradable. Under optimal conditions, such as composting environment, cotton can decompose within one to five months10. Dyed cotton can take between five months and over a year to decompose, depending on the dye composition and environmental conditions11. Cotton blended with synthetics decomposes much slower, and can take up 20 or even 200 years12.
…on a side note
According to the International Institute for Sustainable Development (2020), the cotton industry directly supports the livelihoods of 350 million people. This includes 100 million farmers and cultivators as well as 250 million individuals involved in cotton processing and other support roles. Cotton is a fundamental source of income for many communities and countries around the world. It is a primary export commodity for West African countries such as Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mali. In India, China and Pakistan many rural communities depend solely on cotton farming for their livelihood. In the southern United States, particularly in Texas, Mississippi, and Georgia, cotton farming remains a major agricultural activity, despite the development of other profitable key economies, such as energy and technology respectively.
Verdict
Upon careful consideration of the arguments presented, it is acknowledged that the significant advantage of cotton lies in its versatility, both in virgin production and recycling, as well as its durability and biodegradability. Additionally, cotton is less likely to cause allergic reactions compared to other natural and synthetic fabrics.
Bottomline
Avoid conventionally farmed cotton and pick organic, transitional, or at least recycled cotton instead. Opt for pure and naturally dyed cotton. This is one of those few consumption choices that bears the least harm for the environment, as well as for the humans and animals that live in it.
That’s it.
Further reading
Footnotes
- https://textileexchange.org ↩︎
- https://currentaffairs.adda247.com ↩︎
- https://www.fas.usda.gov ↩︎
- https://council.science ↩︎
- https://www.europarl.europa.eu ↩︎
- https://hgic.clemson.edu et varia ↩︎
- https://nrdc.org ↩︎
- https://sanvt.com ↩︎
- https://neelablue.com ↩︎
- https://cottonworks.com ↩︎
- https://cottonbrazil.com ↩︎
- https://theslowlabel.com ↩︎